Magnetically oriented tissue-equivalent and biopolymer tubes

ABSTRACT

Tissue-equivalent and biopolymer tubes include fibrils which are oriented by a magnetic field. These oriented fibrils provide enhanced mechanical properties to the tissue-equivalent and biopolymer tubes. One such tissue-equivalent tube includes a body of collagen with mammalian tissue cells interspersed therein. The collagen fibrils are circumferentially oriented within the tubular body by a magnetic field, thereby inducing circumferential orientation of the cells. Methods of making magnetically oriented tissue-equivalent tubes and biopolymer tubes are also disclosed.

CROSS REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/703,928, filed Aug. 28, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,654, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/319,291, filed Oct. 6, 1994, now abandoned.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with Government support under Presidential Young Investigator Award BCS-8957736, awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to oriented tissue-equivalent and biopolymer tubes and in particular bioartificial arteries made of Type I collagen formed into tubes having collagen fibrils circumferentially oriented by a magnetic field.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The demand for artificial blood vessels, and in particular, artificial arteries is great. This is due to the fact that over 600,000 surgical procedures involving large and small blood vessels are conducted annually.

Arteries are complex structures, as the cellular and extracellular components of the artery wall are not uniformly distributed. Rather, these cellular and extracellular components are organized into discrete layers. These discrete layers have a trilaminant structure of an intima, a media and an adventitia.

The mechanical properties of the artery wall are largely due to components of the vessel media layer. Elastin is the most extensible component of the vessel media, whereas collagen is relatively stiff. The presence of smooth muscle cells is important for two reasons. First, the smooth muscle cells synthesize the elastin and collagen present in the vessel media and second, they are capable of contraction and relaxation in response to various external stimuli including vasoactive substances in the blood and sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve impulses. These smooth muscle cells are thus an important source of structural protein that contribute directly to the strength and elasticity of the vessel wall and represent a component of variable elasticity participating in the regulation of vessel tone.

The elastin and collagen components confer a nonlinear stress-strain relationship, in which the elastic modulus of the vessel wall increases (the vessel becomes stiffer) as the vessel is distended. The importance of organization to mechanical function in the arterial wall is clearly seen when arteries are compared to veins of similar size. In arteries, the circumferentially or (helically) oriented smooth muscle cells and associated elastin and collagen of the media, provide the mechanical strength necessary to withstand the higher pressures that exists in the arterial circulation. In contrast, the media layer of a vein of similar size is reduced in thickness, contains fewer smooth muscle cells, less elastin, and lastly little circumferential orientation of smooth muscle collagen and elastin seen as in the arteries.

Several attempts have been made at creating a completely bioartificial artery. Weinberg and Bell, “A Blood Vessel Model Construction from Collagen and Cultured Vascular Cells” in Science, Vol. 231 (1986), pp. 397-400, reported production of an artery involving smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts in layers of reconstituted Type I collagen that approximate the laminate structure, but not the circumferential orientation of natural arteries. These vessel analogs lacked the mechanical strength necessary to withstand the stress associated with pulsatile blood flow in vivo. To increase the strength, proponents of the Weinberg and Bell approach were forced to reinforce these arteries with synthetic polymer sheaths, such as Dacron®. These bioartificial arteries exhibit a severe drawback in that biocompatability problems can ultimately lead to graft failure as reported by Langer and Vacanti, “Tissue Engineering” in Science, Vol 260 (1993), pp. 920-926.

The orientation of fibrils and cells in collagen has been studied. For example, Torbet and Ronziere, “Magnetic Alignment of Collagen During Self-Assembly” in Biochem. J., Vol. 219 (1984), pp. 1057-1059, reported collagen fibril orientation in the presence of a magnetic field. Additionally, Guido and Tranquillo, “A Methodology for the Systematic and Quantitative Study of Cell Contact Guidance in Oriented Collagen Gels” in Journal of Cell Science, Vol. 105 (1993), pp. 317-331, reported that cells orient in the same direction as the oriented collagen fibrils, under the phenomenon known as “cell contact guidance”.

Despite the study of fibril and cell orientation, there remains the need to provide a tissue-equivalent tube that has mechanical properties that enable it to better withstand distension, typically associated with pulsatile blood flow in arteries, without reinforcing synthetic materials.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention comprises a tissue-equivalent tube that has a cylindrical body made of a reconstituted collagen network with smooth muscle cells interspersed therein. The collagen network is comprised of fibrils that orient circumferentially within the tubular body. The cells are induced by the oriented fibrils to also orient circumferentially. The circumferential orientation of fibrils and cells is characteristic of a native artery and results in improved mechanical properties.

The tissue-equivalent tube is formed by a tubular mold having a central rod and a concentric outer member, aligned to provide a cavity between the central rod and the outer member. The mold includes a longitudinal axis, extending the length of the mold. The cavity is then filled with a solution of collagen and mammalian tissue cells. In one embodiment, the filled tubular mold is then placed into a high strength magnetic field such that the longitudinal axis of the tubular mold is substantially parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field orients the forming collagen fibrils normal to the direction of the magnetic field, such that the collagen fibrils are oriented circumferentially with respect to the tube.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals identify like components.

In the drawings:

FIG. 1 is a side view of the tubular mold of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is an illustration of a control tissue-equivalent tube;

FIG. 3 is an illustration of a circumferentially oriented tissue-equivalent tube of the present invention;

FIG. 4 is an illustration of an axially oriented biopolymer tube of the present invention;

FIG. 5 is a micrograph of the control tissue-equivalent tube;

FIG. 6 is a micrograph of the circumferentially oriented tissue-equivalent tube of the present invention; and

FIG. 7 is a chart of a creep test in the circumferential direction on the control tissue-equivalent tube and the circumferentially oriented tissue-equivalent tube of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

As used in the present invention, “tissue-equivalent tubes” refer to tubes formed of collagen or fibrin and mammalian tissue cells. “Biopolymer tubes” refer to tubes formed of collagen or fibrin, without the mammalian tissue cells. The term “oriented” refers to the fibrils of the collagen or fibrin, which form the tissue-equivalent or biopolymer tubes, being substantially aligned in a specific direction, i.e., axially (along the longitudinal axis of the tube) or circumferentially (along the transverse axis of the tube).

The oriented tissue-equivalent tubes of the invention are formed of a solution comprising collagen and mammalian tissue cells, placed into a tubular mold, and subjected to a magnetic field, causing the forming collagen fibrils to become oriented in a direction substantially normal to the direction of the magnetic field. Accordingly, a filled tubular mold placed into the magnetic field, such that its longitudinal axis is parallel to the magnetic field, will have circumferentially oriented fibers, while a filled tubular mold, placed into the magnetic field such that its longitudinal axis is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, will have axially oriented fibrils.

Additionally, biopolymer tubes can be made of pure collagen. Unlike the tissue-equivalent tubes, these biopolymer tubes lack mammalian tissue cells. However, similar to the tissue-equivalent tubes made of the collagen solution (collagen and mammalian tissue cells), the collagen fibrils orient in the desired direction based upon the positioning of the filled tubular mold with respect to the direction of the magnetic field.

Moreover, tissue-equivalent tubes and biopolymer tubes could be made by the method of the present invention by another tissue matrix material such as fibrin. A fibrin-forming solution, prepared in accordance with conventional methods known in the art, would be placed in a tubular mold and subjected to a magnetic field. As reported by Torbet, “Fibrin Assembly in Human Plasma and Fibrinogen/Albumin-Mixtures” in Biochemistry, Vol. 25 (1986), pp. 5309-5314, which is incorporated by reference herein, fibrin fibrils, when subjected to a magnetic field, orient in a direction substantially parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. This behavior in the presence of a magnetic field is opposite that of collagen fibrils. Accordingly, a tubular mold formed with fibrin-forming solution, and placed into the magnetic field such that its longitudinal axis is parallel to the magnetic field will have axially oriented fibers, while a filled tubular mold placed into the magnetic field such that its longitudinal axis is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field will have circumferentially oriented fibrils.

The collagen referred to above is any monomeric collagen, that self-assembles into fibrils, such as Type I collagen or the like, prepared by any conventional procedures. The mammalian tissue cells referred to above could be grown by any conventional cell growth and culturing method. The tubular molds referred to above could be any mold having a solid rod concentric with an outer member. Both the solid central rod and the outer member are made of materials which will not adhere to the gelled solution, in order that a tube with an open central lumen can be removed.

The present invention envisions molds of single and multiple piece construction. For example, the solid central rod and outer member can be discrete members. In such a case, the outer member is preferably a cylindrical tube. However, rectangular or hexagonal shaped tubes, or the like may also be used. A separate solid rod serves as a second component of the mold. This rod can be formed as a separate member, attached to a plunger (if a syringe barrel forms the outer member) or other portion of the outer member of the mold. The solid rod can also be formed integral with the plunger. Alternately, a single piece construction, having a formed outer member, bore, barrel, or the like, with an internally positioned axial rod component is permissible. The dimensions and spacial relationships of the outer member and central rod can be varied by one skilled in the art, based on the disclosures herein. Additionally, the tubular mold, or various components thereof, can be made of materials such as Teflon®, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, other equivalent plastic materials, or other non-porous non-nonmagnetic materials.

Turning now to the drawing figures, which show embodiments of the present invention, FIG. 1 shows a tubular mold 20 for making the tissue-equivalent tubes and biopolymer tubes of the invention. The tubular mold 20 is formed from a Teflon® rod 22 and a cylinder 24, preferably formed of a syringe barrel. The Teflon® rod 22 is attached to a plunger 26 at the plunger disc 28. The disc 28 frictionally engages the inner surface 30 of the cylinder 24.

The Teflon® rod 22 is preferably at the center of the cylinder 24. The inner surface 30 of the cylinder 24 and the outer surface 32 of the Teflon® rod 22 are spaced apart such that there is a tubular cavity 34 in the space therebetween. The Teflon® rod 22 is positioned in this manner to provide the resultant tubes 40, 50, 60 (FIGS. 2-4) with a central lumen 44, 54, 64 (FIGS. 2-4) upon removal from the tubular mold 20. The tubular mold 20 includes an opening 35 for receiving the collagen solution and openings 36 for releasing air displaced by the collagen solution. The tubular mold 20 is designed such that a collagen solution injected therein can be easily removed as a collagen tube.

This tubular mold 20 includes a longitudinal axis 38 and a transverse axis 39. These axes 38, 39 will be used to illustrate the directions of fibril orientation.

FIG. 2 shows a tissue-equivalent tube 40, made from the tubular mold 20 of FIG. 1, that is used as a control. The tube 40 has a cylindrical body 42 around a central lumen 44. The body 42 includes randomly oriented collagen fibrils 45 and mammalian tissue cells 46. The tube 40 is formed from a solution of collagen and mammalian tissue cells injected into the tubular mold 20 (FIG. 1) and removed once the collagen has self-assembled into fibrils 45 entrapping the mammalian tissue cells 46.

The collagen used for this control tube 40 is preferably monomeric Type I collagen, or the like, in a cold (approximately 5° C.) neutral solution. The mammalian tissue cells are preferably smooth muscle cells having been grown by conventional cell growth and culture methods, well known to those skilled in the art. The mammalian tissue cells are then dispersed into the cold collagen solution in accordance with the procedure detailed below in Example 1.

The cold solution is then injected into small (pinhole sized) openings 35 in the tubular mold 20. Fibrillogenesis begins as the tubular mold 20 (FIG. 1) is then transferred to a constant temperature box, for incubation in the temperature range of approximately 30° C. to 40° C. for approximately two hours, during which fibrillogenesis is normally completed. These steps, as well as additional steps required to complete the fabrication of the control tube 40, are described in detail in Example 1, below.

FIG. 3 shows a tissue-equivalent tube 50 of the invention. This tube 50 has a cylindrical body 52 around a central lumen 54. The body 52 includes circumferentially oriented collagen fibrils 55 and mammalian tissue cells 56. The tube 50 includes a longitudinal axis 58 and a transverse axis 59 and is formed from a solution of collagen, including fibrils 55, with mammalian tissue cells 56. The collagen fibrils 55 and mammalian tissue cells 56 of this tube 50 are circumferentially oriented along the transverse axis 59. This circumferential orientation of fibrils 55 and mammalian tissue cells 56 in the tube 50 provides enhanced mechanical strength in the transverse direction, to help prevent it from longitudinal splitting. Additionally, it is believed that the mammalian tissue cells 56, further mechanically strengthen the circumferentially oriented tube 50 by a phenomenon known as “cell traction”. This phenomenon of “cell traction” occurs as the mammalian tissue cells 56 place the fibrils 55 in tension while elaborating other reinforcing extracellular matrix molecules, such as elastin, in the collagen, as they differentiate in the tissue-equivalent environment.

The collagen used for the tube 50 of the invention is identical to that described above in reference to the control tube 40 of FIG. 1. The mammalian tissue cells 56 are preferably smooth muscle cells, identical to those described above in reference to the control tube 40 of FIG. 1.

The solution of collagen and mammalian tissue cells is prepared as described for the control tube 40 of FIG. 1, above (as described in detail in Example 1, below), except that the initiation of fibrillogenesis is substantially simultaneous with the filled tubular mold 20 (FIG. 1) being placed into a high strength (4.7 to 9 Tesla) magnetic field. The magnetic field is preferably a static magnetic field generated by a horizontal bore electromagnet, such as a 4.7 Tesla Model, from the Oxford Company of the United Kingdom. Specifically, the filled tubular mold 20 (FIG. 1) is placed into the magnetic field at an orientation such that its longitudinal axis 38 (FIG. 1) is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. This incubation, where collagen fibril orientation occurs lasts approximately two hours. These steps are described in detail in Example 2, below.

This positioning of the filled tubular mold 20 (FIG. 1) in the magnetic field causes the growing collagen fibrils 56 to orient circumferentially in the direction of the transverse axis 39 (FIG. 1). The orientation of the fibrils 55 is additionally aided by alteration of the parameters, one parameter being the distance between the outer surface of the Teflon® rod 32 (FIG. 1) and the inner surface of the outer cylinder 30 (FIG. 1). By having a cavity 34 (FIG. 1) with a short distance between the surfaces 30, 32, the orienting effect of the magnetic field in the growing fibrils in the circumferential direction is maximized as the surfaces of the Teflon® rod 22 and the cylinder 24 (FIG. 1) assist in the alignment.

In the present invention, the smooth muscle cells are induced to exhibit circumferential orientation (induced by the circumferentially oriented fibrils described above), similar to that of the smooth muscle cells in the medial layer of an artery. According to the method described herein, this smooth muscle cell orientation contributes to the mechanical properties of the circumferentially oriented tube 50.

The circumferentially oriented tissue-equivalent tubes of the invention are useful as artificial blood vessels, and in particular arteries, as they are reinforced in a circumferential direction, providing additional strength to withstand the distension associated with pulsatile blood flow. However, these oriented tissue-equivalent tubes, along with tissue-equivalent tubes having fibrils aligned along the longitudinal axis 58 of the tube, known as “axially oriented” (produced by the method detailed in Example 2, below, except that the fibril orienting step is such that the filled mold is placed such that its longitudinal axis is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field, during fibrillogenesis), may find use as bioartificial ureters, urethras, tracheas, an esophagus, intestines, and other tubular organs. Sheets of this material could also be produced using sheet molds instead of the tubular molds described above, in order to produce planar structures such as skin or bladders.

Alternately, the cold collagen solution may be kept pure (i.e., without cells) and formed into oriented biopolymer tubes in accordance with the procedures detailed below in Examples 1 and 2. If an axially oriented biopolymer tube formed from this pure cold collagen solution were desired, the orientation step (detailed in Example 2, below), would be such that the filled tubular mold would be placed into the magnetic field such that its longitudinal axis is substantially perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. With respect to these tubes, they would be weaker than those with the smooth muscle cells, for the smooth muscle cells enhance the mechanical properties of the tubes.

FIG. 4 shows a biopolymer tube 60 of the invention. This tube 60 has a cylindrical body 62 around a central lumen 64. The body 62 includes fibrin fibrils 65 oriented along the longitudinal axis 68, known as “axially oriented”. The tube 60 also has a transverse axis 69. The tube 60 is formed from a fibrin-forming solution including fibrinogen and thrombin, prepared in accordance with that described in Torbet, “Fibrin Assembly in Human Plasma and Fibrinogen/Albumin Mixtures” in Biochemistry, Vol. 25 (1986), pp. 5309-5314. This fibrin-forming solution is then made into an axially oriented biopolymer tube in accordance with Examples 1 and 2 below. However, should a tissue-equivalent tube with circumferentially oriented fibrin fibrils (oriented along the transverse axis 69) be desired, the orientation step would be opposite that disclosed in Example 2 below, as the filled tubular mold 20 (FIG. 1) would be placed into the magnetic field such that its longitudinal axis 68 is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

These axially oriented fibrin tubes, as well as axially oriented collagen biopolymer tubes (discussed above) are particularly useful as nerve regeneration conduits. This is due to the fact that the axially oriented fibrils 65 can serve to guide the inward growth and movement of host neurons 70 at opposite ends of the tube 60, such that the neurons at each end ultimately grow together. Rejoining of the severed nerve would occur in less time as compared to a randomly oriented biopolymer tube.

Turning now to FIGS. 5 and 6, there are shown micrographs of a control tissue-equivalent tube (FIG. 5) and a circumferentially oriented tissue-equivalent tube (FIG. 6), produced in accordance with the invention, as detailed in Examples 1 and 2 below. In FIGS. 5 and 6, the horizontal dimension is coincident with the longitudinal direction of the tube and the vertical dimension is coincident with the circumferential (transverse) direction of the tube. In FIG. 5, the cells appear randomly oriented in this control tube, while in FIG. 6, the cells appear circumferentially oriented.

EXAMPLE 1

The control tube of FIG. 5 is prepared as follows. 20 microliters of cold (5° C.) HEPES Buffer Solution (1M) (No. 4573, The Merk Index, 11th ed.) are mixed with 50 microliters 10x Gibco Minimum Essential Medium (MEM) (Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md. 20877) in a disposable 15 ml sterile vial. 132 microliters of room temperature NaOH (0.1N) is then added to the HEPES-MEM solution.

A solution is then prepared as 60 microliters of Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) from Hyclone Laboratories, Inc., Logan, Utah 84321, 1 microliter of Penicillin-Streptomycin solution (5000 units of Penicillin and 5000 micrograms Streptomycin per millimeter in 0.85% saline solution) (Pen-Strep), and 10 microliters L-Glutamate solution (29.2 milligrams per milliliter in 0.85% saline solution) are obtained from separate stocks, and each is frozen to −20° C. The separate FBS, Pen-Strep, and L-Glutamate are warmed to room temperature and individually added to the 15 ml vial.

677 microliters of cold (5° C.) Vitrogen®100 Collagen, available from Celtrix Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 3055 Patrick Henry Drive, Santa Clara, Calif. 95054, are then added and the solution is gently mixed with a pipette.

A cold (5° C.) cell suspension of smooth muscle cells (approximately 4×10⁶ cells/ml) suspended in 50 microliters Gibco Medium 199 (M-199) (Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md. 20877) is prepared. The solution includes rat aortic smooth muscle cells prepared in accordance with the method disclosed in Diglio, et al., “Rat Cerebral Microvascular Smooth Muscle Cells in Culture” in J. Cell. Physiol., Vol. 129(2) (1986), pp. 131-141, which is incorporated by reference herein. The cells were maintained in Gibco Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) (Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md. 20877) containing 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) and were subcultured twice weekly. Only cells below passage 25 that retain the phenotypic traits of expressing smooth muscle cell specific alpha-actin and myosin, and not the Factor VIII-related antigen were used here. This cold cell suspension is now added to the 15 ml vial.

The contents of the 15 ml vial are gently mixed with a pipette. The solution is kept on ice all the while. The cell and collagen solution is syringed out using standard sterile 3 milliliter syringes and is injected into a sterile mold. The mold was previously sterilized by soaking in 70% ethanol and followed by repeated rinsing with sterile water. The opening on the mold to inject the solution is covered with Parafilm® (American National Can Company, Chicago, Ill.) and the mold is placed on ice. The mold has an outer diameter of 1.2 centimeters and an inner diameter (for the central solid rod) of 0.635 centimeters, and a length of 1.2 centimeters. The process is repeated until the desired amount of molds are full. The molds are then placed in an incubator at 32° C. for two hours (the fibrillogenesis period).

EXAMPLE 2

The tubes of FIG. 6 were initially prepared in accordance with Example 1 above, except that the mold(s) once full are not placed in an incubator at 32° C. for the two hour fibrillogenesis period. Rather, the air and water tight molds are taken to a 4.7 Tesla magnet (Oxford Company, United Kingdom) on ice, and once there they are removed from the ice bath and placed in 1.25 inch thick styrofoam boxes filled with water at 32° C. The molds are submerged in the water. The styrofoam box, containing the submerged molds, is then placed in a plastic bag and slid into the bore of the magnet, where the collagen solution in the molds is left to self-assemble for 2 hours (the fibrillogenesis period). In order to minimize gravity-induced cell settling during fibrillogenesis, the molds are briefly removed from the magnet and carefully rotated 180° and returned to the magnet. This procedure is done at 10 minute intervals.

When the two hours are up, the molds are removed from the magnet. Immediately, in a sterile hood, the molds are opened and the tissue-equivalent tubes are removed and placed in sterile 30 milliliter glass vials filled with 20 milliliters of M-199 cell culture medium supplemented with 5% (by volume) L-Glutamine, 5% (by volume) Fungizone® (E. R. Squibb & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.)(250 micrograms amphotericin B and 205 micrograms sodium deoxycholate/milliliter in sterile/distilled water), 5% (by volume) Penicillin-Streptomycin solution (5000 units of Penicillin and 5000 micrograms streptomycin per milliliter in 0.85% saline solution), and 10% (by volume) Hyclone Fetal Bovine Serum. Smaller (⅛ inch) diameter sterile Teflon® rods are placed in the lumens of the tubes and they are subsequently placed in an incubator at 37° C. for extended periods of time (as long as is desired). The M-199 cell culture medium with supplements (described above) in the 30 ml glass vials is replaced at two day intervals.

EXAMPLE 3

The control tissue-equivalent tube (FIG. 5) and the circumferentially oriented tissue-equivalent tube (FIG. 6) were both subsequently cultured in an incubator at 37° C. for 108 hours and then tested on a Liveco Vitrodyne® 200, available from Liveco, Inc. of Burlington, Vt. The testing procedure involved first, slowly extending the tubes to a collapsed state and then allowing the tubes time to equilibrate before testing. This testing mode simulated distension in an artery. Creep compliance was measured over time and the results are plotted in FIG. 7. The circumferentially oriented tissue-equivalent tube response is line 100 while the unoriented (control) tissue-equivalent tube response is line 102. Based on these responses, the circumferentially oriented tube showed less instantaneous creep, as it was stiffer (less elastic) than the unoriented (control) tube. The creep rate at longer times is also somewhat less for the oriented tube (FIG. 6), indicating that it is also more viscous.

While the invention has been described in connection with several embodiments, it will be understood that the invention is not limited to these embodiments. The invention is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope thereof, as defined by the appended claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A tissue equivalent tube, the tube including a cylindrical body with a circumference, the body comprising collagen and mammalian tissue cells interspersed within the collagen, the collagen including fibrils, the fibrils being oriented substantially circumferentially within the cylindrical body of the tissue-equivalent tube, wherein said circumferential orientation is induced by a magnetic field.
 2. The tissue-equivalent tube of claim 1, wherein the collagen is monomeric Type I collagen.
 3. The tissue-equivalent tube of claim 1, wherein the mammalian tissue cells are smooth muscle cells.
 4. The tissue-equivalent tube of claim 1, wherein the mammalian tissue cells are oriented substantially circumferentially within the cylindrical body of the tissue-equivalent tube.
 5. A biopolymer tube, the tube including a cylindrical body with a circumference, the body comprising collagen, the collagen including fibrils, the fibrils being oriented substantially circumferentially within the cylindrical body of the biopolymer tube, wherein said circumferential orientation is induced by a magnetic field.
 6. The biopolymer tube of claim 5, wherein the collagen is monomeric Type I collagen. 